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Shoplifting is clearly a psychological issue for many people.
Shoplifting for most individuals is rarely about greed or
poverty. It’s about people struggling with their own
personal conflicts and needs.
The single largest psychological factor found in approximately
1/3 of shoplifters studied is “depression”. This
helps to explain why so many individuals steal from stores
on their birthday and/or around holiday times.
The more intense form of shoplifting is classified in the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV)
as an “Impulse Disorder” known as Kleptomania.
For this classification, the patient must meet the following
five criteria to justify this diagnosis.
- Recurrent failure to resist impulses to steal objects
that are not needed for personal use or their monetary
value.
- Increasing sense of tension immediately before committing
the theft.
- Pleasure or relief at the time
of committing the theft.
- Stealing is not committed to express anger or vengeance
and is not in response to a delusion or hallucination.
- The stealing is not better accounted for by Conduct Disorder,
a Manic Episode, or Antisocial Personality Disorder.
Today, kleptomania is considered far more prevalent than
originally believed.
The purpose of this section on our website is to help individuals,
family members, therapists and researchers better understand
this common psychological issue by continually providing an
updated reference to a variety of published psychological
studies (most current first), with a brief summary of
Findings or conclusions, when available. In addition, NASP has posted
and will continually post on its website, a variety of articles
on shoplifting which you can read by clicking on “Articles”
in this National Learning and Resource Center.
To search for a study abstract, review the full study or
seek other psychological studies, you may access the following
common websites:
You may be pleased to know that NASP uses these and other
psychological studies to develop and update its various assessments
and programs. Here are relevant studies we selected which
may interest you.
Selected Studies Found In Psychological, Psychiatric
and Therapeutic Journals and Publications.
1. The Devil Made Me Do It: Use Of Neutralizations
By Shoplifters.
Authors: Paul Cromwell/Quint Thurman, Wichita State U, Wichita
KS,
Southwest Texas State U, San Marcos, TX; Deviant Behavior;
Nov-Dec 2003; Vol. 24(6) p. 535-550.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Interviews with 137 apprehended shoplifters revealed
widespread use of techniques of neutralizations, where deviants
must neutralize moral prescriptions either before the crime
is committed or by after-the-fact rationalizations.
2. Consumer Misbehavior: An Exploratory Study of
Shoplifting.
Author: Michele Tonglet, U College Northampton, School of
Law & Accountancy, Northampton, England; Journal of Consumer
Behavior;
Jun 2002; Vol.1(4); p. 336-354.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Adults and teenagers form belief systems that amount
to rational intentions in the decision to shoplift.
b. The decision to shoplift is influenced by pro-shoplifting
attitudes, social factors, opportunities for shoplifting and
perceptions of low risks of apprehension.
3. A Psychological Examination of First-Time Apprehended
Shoplifting Offenders: An empirical Investigation of Cupchik’s
Loss- substitution-by-stealing Hypothesis. (Will Cupchik).
Author: Matthew Douglas Geyer, Spalding U, USA; Dissertation
Abstracts International; Section B The Sciences & Engineering;
Aug. 2001; Vol. 62(B); p. 1077.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Hypothesizes that shoplifting for most offenders is due
to psychological factions which are related to the individual
experiencing a loss.
b. Among 116 first-time shoplifting offenders, many did experience
loss states prior to their shoplifting offenses and the study
results did provide evidence of psychopathology on each of
the clinical scales of the SCL-90-R.
4. Sensation Seeking As A Predictor Of Positive &
Negative Risk Behavior Among Adolescents.
Authors: Ellen Beate Hansen/Gunnar Breivik, Norwegian U of
Sports & Physical Education, Oslo, Norway; Personality
& Individual Differences; Mar. 2001; Vol. 30(4); p. 627-640.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Results indicate a strong relationship between sensation
seeking and risk taking behavior among 360 12 to 16 year old
students in Norway.
5. Anxiety, Significant Losses, Depression, and Irrational
Beliefs in First-offense Shoplifters.
Authors: Yves Lamontagne/Richard Boyer/Celine Hetu/Celine
Lacerte- Lamontagne, U Montreal, Dept. of Psychiatry, Montreal,
PQ, Canada; Canadian Journal of Psychiatry; Feb. 2000; Vol.
45(1); p. 64-66.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Men and women were equally likely to be arrested for
shoplifting,
b. Depression, but not anxiety, was the most common psychiatric
disorder associated with shoplifting.
c. Among the 106 adult first-offender shoplifters studied,
the authors suggest two categories of shoplifters: those who
shoplift through rational choice and those for whom shoplifting
is a response to depression or leads to the fulfillment of
some psychological needs.
6. Comparison of Shoplifting Behaviours In Patients
With Eating Disorders, Psychiatric Control Subjects,
& Undergraduate Control Subjects.
Authors: Elliot M. Goldner/Josie Geller/ C. Laird Birmingham/
Ronald A. Remick, U British Columbia, Dept. Of Psychiatry,
Vancouver, BC Canada; Canadian Journal of Psychiatry; Jun.
2000; Vol. 45(5);
p. 471-475.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Study consisted of three groups of 176 women –
48 with anorexia nervosa, bulimia or other eating disorder;
46 inpatient and outpatient psychiatric patients; 82 undergraduate
controls.
b. Across all three groups, shoplifting was associated with
low self- esteem, elevated depression and purging behaviors
at the time of the assessment.
7. Shoplifting: A Review Of The Literature.
Authors: Therese Krasnovsky/Robert C. Lane, Nova Southeastern
U, Center for Psychological Studies, Ft. Lauderdale, FL; Aggression
& Violent Behavior; Fall 1998; Vol. 3(3); p. 219-235.
8. Women Who Shoplift.
Author: Jane Knowles, West Berkshire Psychotherapy Service,
England; A practical Guide To Forensic Psychotherapy; 1997;
p. 210-215.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Discusses the psychopathology and group and individual
psychodynamic psychotherapeutic treatment of women who shoplift.
9. Kleptomania-like Behaviour & Psychosocial
Characteristics Among Shoplifters.
Authors: Elina Sarasalo/Bo Bergman/Janos Toth, Karolinska
Inst. Huddington Hosp, Institution of Clinical Neuroscience
& Family Medicine, Huddinge, Sweden; Legal & Criminological
Psychology; Feb. 1997;
Vol. 2(Part 1); p. 1-10.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Suggests that features of kleptomania-like behavior may
be common among ordinary shoplifters but all the diagnostic
criteria according to the DSM-IV are rarely fulfilled.
b. Among the 50 shoplifters studied that exhibited kleptomania-like
behavior, many did not feel to be themselves during the crime,
indicating dissociative-like experiences, which have been
described in kleptomania and compulsive buying.
c. In cases of compulsive and ego-dystonic shoplifting, the
educational program developed by Shoplifters Anonymous may
be a better alternative to fines.
10. Everyone Does It, But Who’s To Blame: Adolescents’
Constructions & Reconstructions of Shoplifting.
Authors: Jeanette Lawrence/Vanessa Heinze, U Melbourne, Parkville,
VIC Australia; Socio-genetic Perspectives on Internalization;
1997; p. 45-73.
11. Why Honest People Shoplift or Commit Other Acts
of Theft: Assessment & Treatment of ‘typical theft
offenders’.
Author: Will Cupchik, Private Practice, Ontario Canada;
1997; p. 356 xix.
12. The Kleptomanias & Female Criminality.
Author: George Zavitzianos, Canadian Psychoanalytic Inst.,
Montreal, PQ, Canada; Sexual Dynamics Of Anti-Social Behavior
(2nd ed.); 1997;
p. 132-157.
Findings or conclusions:
a. The author explores why the need to steal arises, examines
its irresistible and repetitive nature despite the possible
consequences, discusses the symbolic significance attached
to both the act of stealing and the object stolen and examines
perverse forms of kleptomania.
13. Effects Of Moral Cognitions & Consumer Emotions
On Shoplifting Intentions.
Authors: Barry J. Babin/Laurie A. Babin, U of Southern Mississippi,
Dept. of Marketing & Finance, MS; Psychology & Marketing;
Dec 1996;
p. 785-802.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Emotions are important in explaining the aberrant consumer
act of shoplifting, especially among adolescents.
b. Among 54 adults, their behavioral intentions to shoplift
were affected by their moral beliefs, with attitude toward
the act of shoplifting serving as a partial mediator of these
effects.
14. Explorations & Implications Of Aberrant Consumer
Behavior.
Authors: Michael C. Budden/Thomas F. Griffin III, Auburn U,
Montgomery, AL; Psychology & Marketing; Dec 1996; Vol.
13(8); p. 739-740.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Forms of aberrant and dysfunctional consumer behavior
include, but are not limited to, shoplifting, credit misuse
and abuse, compulsive buying, purchase of illegal products,
illegal market transactions, misuse of products, fraudulent
return of merchandise, fraudulent requests for warranty service,
purchase of counterfeit products, violation of license agreements,
gambling and other addictive behaviors.
15. Study On Juvenile Shoplifters: Their Life Perceptions
& Consciousness While Committing Crimes.
Authors: Sumio Tanaka/Naoko Tanaka, Yachiyo International
U, Japan; Japanese Journal of Criminal Psychology; 1996; Vol.
34(1) p. 1-16.
Findings or conclusions:
a. 255 juveniles (ages under 13 to 19) arrested for shoplifting.
b. Questions about “life perception” (social values)
revealed:
- inclination toward deviant behavior
- defective concept of ownership
- inability to distinguish study from play
- commitment to deviant social code of peer group
c. Questions about “consciousness” (motivational
self-awareness) revealed:
- making excuses
- predicting punishment
- displaying emotional emission
- showing short-circuited thinking.
16. Considerations On The Dynamics Of Fraud &
Shoplifting In Adult Female Offenders.
Authors: Renee Fugere/Andrea D’Elia/Robert Philippe,
McGill Clinic in Forensic Psychiatry, Montreal, PQ, Canada;
Canadian Journal of Psychiatry; Apr. 1995; Vol. 40(3); p.
150-153.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Compares 20 adult female shoplifting and fraudulent behavior
offenders, whose first offense occurred in mid-life.
b. These women shared an unresolved mourning or loss in the
context of high stress and depression, and a marriage to a
dominant, authoritarian male that reproduced the father relationship
and established a conflictual dynamic.
c. Fraud and shoplifting in these women may be seen as a depressive
equivalent.
17. Exploring Teenage Shoplifting Behavior: A Choice
& Constraint Approach.
Author: Lucia Lo, York U, Dept. of Geography, Toronto, ON
Canada;
Environment & Behavior; Sep. 1994; Vol. 26(5); p. 613-639.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Studied 204 Canadian 9th and 12th graders.
b. The tendency to shoplift was not related to socioeconomic
variables.
c. Teenagers appear to shoplift for fun and thrills, with
peer pressure possibly having some influence.
18. Shoplifting & Mental Illness.
Authors: Yves Lamontagne/Normand Carpentier/Celine Hetu/Celine
Lacerte-Lamontage, Fernand Seguin Research Center, Montreal,
PQ, Canada; Canadian Journal of Psychiatry; Jun 1994; Vol.
39(5);
p. 300-302.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Evaluated the prevalence of mental illness and the use
of medication, alcohol and drugs on 1,649 persons convicted
of shoplifting.
b. Only 3.2% of cases involved mentally ill patients but closer
links found between shoplifting and affective disorders, alcoholism
and drug addiction.
19. Social Influences On Adolescent Shoplifting:
Theory, Evidence, & Implications for the Retail Industry.
Authors: Anthony D. Cox/Dena Cox/Ronald D. Anderson/George
P. Moschis; Indiana U School of Business, Indianapolis, IN;
Journal Of Retailing; Summer 1993; Vol. 69(2); p. 234-246.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Self-administered questionnaires to 1,534 adolescents
suggest that shoplifting was strongly influenced by their
friend’s shoplifting behavior, their attachment to their
parents and their own beliefs regarding the morality of their
behavior.
20. Classification of Shoplifters By Cluster Analysis.
Authors: Frank J. McShane/Barrie A. Noonan, U Saskatchewan,
Saskatoon, Canada: International Journal of Offender Therapy
& Comparative Criminology; Spring 1993; Vol. 37(1); p.
20-40.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Results among 75 suspected shoplifters suggest that psychosocial
stressors provide a useful basis for classifying shoplifters
and that identity and perception needs should be addressed
in any treatment program oriented to reduce recidivism.
21. Shoplifting in Bulimia Nervosa.
Authors: James E. Mitchell/Linda Fletcher/Lynn Gibeau/Richard
L. Pyle;
et al, U Minnesota Hosp. Dept. of Psychiatry Eating Disorder
Program, Minneapolis, MN; Comprehensive Psychiatry; Sep-Oct.
1992; Vol. 33(5); p. 342-345.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Comparison of shoplifting patterns among 27 bulimic and
25 non- bulimic shoplifters revealed that bulimic shoplifters
often stole food in addition to other items.
22. Evaluating A Diversion Program For First-time
Shoplifters.
Authors: David Royse/Steven A. Buck, U Kentucky, College of
Social
Work, Lexington, KY; Journal of Offender Rehabilitation; 1991;
Vol. 17(1-2) p.147-158.
Findings or conclusions:
a. A criminal justice diversion program was successful in
reducing subsequent arrests for shoplifting.
b. Subjects who did not participate or did not complete the
program had re-arrests six times higher.
23. Personal Meaning In The Lives Of A Shoplifting
Population.
Authors: Frank J. McShane/John Lawless/Barrie A. Noonan; International
Journal of Offender Therapy & Comparative Criminology;
Fall 1991;
Vol. 35(3); p. 190-204.
Findings or conclusions:
a. 70 apprehended shoplifters (aged 18-88) compared to 70
undergraduate non-shoplifters.
b. Shoplifters were more likely to lack clear purpose in life,
to live below the poverty level, to be socially isolated and
not to perceive psychological stressors than non-shoplifters.
24. Predicting Dishonest Actions Using The Theory
Of Planned Behavior.
Authors: Lisa Beck/Icek Ajzen, U Massachusetts, Amherst, MA;
Journal Of Research In Personality; Sep. 1991; Vol. 25(3);
p. 285-301.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Questionnaire administered to 146 college students to
predict dishonest actions.
25. The Relation of Motivation & Gender to The
Personality Dynamics & Emotional Experience Of Shoplifters.
Author: Lisa R. Yufit, California School of Professional Psychology-
Berkeley, Alameda, CA; Dissertation Abstracts International;
Feb 1991; Vol. 51(8-B); p. 4072.
26. Clinical Assessment & Intervention With Shoplifters.
Authors: Sanford Schwartz/Herman V. Wood, Virginia Commonwealth
U School of Social Work, Richmond, VA; Social Work; May, 1991;
Vol. 36(3) p. 234-238.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Presents a typology to guide social work assessment of,
and intervention with, shoplifters.
b. Typology addressed five specific motivational factors:
- entitlement
- addiction
- peer pressure
- stress
- impulsiveness
27. When Consumer Behavior Goes Bad: An Investigation
of Adolescent Shoplifting.
Authors: Dena Cox/Anthony D. Cox/George P. Moschis, Indiana
U School of Business, Indianapolis, IN; Journal of Consumer
Research; Sep. 1990; Vol. 17(2); p. 149-159.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Surveyed 1,692 7th-12th graders concerning shoplifting
behavior, family occupational status, perceived reasons for
adolescent shoplifting and rule-breaking behavior.
b. Shoplifting rose steadily between 7th and 10th grades and
declined thereafter.
c. Findings contradict some stereotypes concerning the typical
shoplifter.
28. A Structured Group Format For First Offense Shoplifters.
Authors: John W. MacDevitt/Gerard D. Kedzierzawski, Northern
Michigan U, Counseling Center, Marquette, MI; International
Journal of Offender Therapy & Comparative Criminology;
Sep. 1990; Vol. 34(2); p. 155-164.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Describes a psycho-educational group treatment for first-offender
shoplifters that is built around the notion of precipitating
stressors.
b. Only 5% of shoplifters who participated in the program
were re- arrested in the county for shoplifting over 8 years.
29. Rational vs. Non-rational Shoplifting Types:
The Implications For Loss Prevention Strategies.
Authors: Gregory R. Schlueter/Francis C. O’Neal/JoAnn
Hickey/Gloria L. Seiler, Norwich U. Northfield, VT; International
Journal of Offence Therapy & Comparative Criminology;
Dec 1989; Vol. 33(3); p. 227-239.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Non-rational type shoplifters pose a significant threat
to store security since, they do not consider the possibilities
of apprehension and once apprehended do not change their attitudes
toward shoplifting.
30. Economic Motivators For Shoplifting.
Authors: JoAnn Ray/Katherine H. Briar, Eastern Washington
U, Inland Empire School of Social Work & Human Services.
US; Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare; Dec 1988; Vol.
15(4); p 177-189.
Findings or conclusions:
a. In this study of 200 court records and 382 self-reports,
shoplifters were more likely to have lower family income,
be unemployed and believe that economic need causes shoplifting.
b. In both men and women, psychological and social stresses
appear to be related to shoplifting.
31. Perception Of College Students’ Motives
For Shoplifting.
Authors: Castellano B. Turner/Sheldon Cashdan, U Massachusetts,
Amherst, MA; Psychological Reports; June 1988; Vol. 62(3);
p. 855-862.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Motivational patterns for shoplifting among 241 female
and 246 male college students revealed poverty and self-indulgence
is the most prevalent motivators offered.
b. Other motivators related to thrill/risk and challenge/fun.
c. Revenge or diffusion of responsibility also played a significant
role.
32. Clinical Perspectives On Elderly First-Offender
Shoplifters.
Authors: Gary S. Moak/Benn Zimmer/Elliott M. Stein, U Massachusetts
Medical School, Worcester, MA; Hospital & Community Psychiatry;
Jun. 1988; Vol. 39(6); p. 648-651.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Suggests that first-offense shoplifting among people
over the age of 60 may be due less to economic hardship and
more to psychiatric disorder.
33. Imaginal Desensitization: A Cost Effective Treatment
In Two Shoplifters And A Binge Eater Resistant To Previous
Therapy.
Authors: Nathaniel McConaghy/Alex Blaszczynski, Prince Of
Wales Hosp. Psychiatry Unit, Randwick, NSW, Australia; Australian
& New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry; Mar. 1988; Vol. 22(1);
p. 78-82.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Three shoplifters responded to a one-week treatment with
imaginal desensitization after having failed to respond to
prolonged interpretative psychotherapy.
34. Psychodynamics & Interpersonal Effects Of
Juvenile Shoplifters Arrested For The First Time.
Author: Gisele J. Renson, Pacific Graduate School of Psychology,
CA; Dissertation Abstracts International; Jan. 1988; Vol.
48(7-B); p. 2107.
35. Factors Influencing Shoplifting Activity Among
Adult Women.
Author: Caryn B. Horowitz, U Delaware, US; Dissertation Abstracts
International; Mar. 1987; Vol. 47(9-1); p. 3568-3569.
36. Kleptomania as Risk-Taking Behavior In Response
To Depression.
Author: David A. Fishbain, University of Miami, FL; American
Journal of Psychotherapy; 1987; Vol. 41(4); p.598-603.
Findings or conclusions:
a. In the case of a 57-year-old woman, kleptomania was risk-taking
behavior in response to depression.
b. Experienced sexual satisfaction from being caught.
37. The Techniques of Neutralization: An Analysis
of Predisposing and Situation Factors.
Authors: Robert Agnew/Ardith A. Peters, Emory University;
Criminal Justice & Behavior; 1986; Vol. 13(1) p. 81-97.
Findings or conclusions:
a. 75% of students would feel “very guilty” for
shoplifting.
b. 48% of students would feel “very guilty” for
cheating on exam.
c. 5% of students who disapprove of shoplifting had shoplifted
in the past year.
d. Students’ acceptance of rationalizations for shoplifting
only occur when the student encounters a situation where the
rationalization is applicable but this only applies to students
who would feel “very guilty” about shoplifting.
38. Benzodiazepines and Shoplifting.
Authors: Richard Williams/J. Thomas Dalby, University Calgary
Medical School, Canada; Journal of Offender Therapy &
Comparative Criminology; 1986; Vol. 30(1) p. 35-39.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Drugs can encourage shoplifting behavior by reducing inhibitions.
b. Use of drugs may be a factor in causing repeat shoplifting.
39. The Influence of Psycho-Social Factors on Non-Sensical
Shoplifting.
Author: Elizabeth Yates; Metropolitan Toronto Ministry of
Correctional Services, Islington, Ontario, Canada; Int’l
Journal of Offender Therapy & Comparative Criminology;
1986; Vol. 30(3) p. 203-211.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Shoplifters steal simply to get something for nothing.
b. A noted lack of self esteem and generally less assertive
individuals.
c. No evidence of mental illness.
d. Evidence of childhood stress, present family conflict or
depression often associated with social isolation.
e. Stress, primarily family or marital, most frequently precedes
shoplifting occurrence, and is often accumulated vs. isolated.
f. Treatment programs should focus on the management of stress
and depression, assertiveness training and increased socialization.
40. A Study of Rural and Suburban Teenage Awareness
of and Attitudes Toward Shoplifting As Related To Demographic
Characteristics.
Author: Janet M. Luttrell; Texas Woman’s University;
Dissertation Abstracts International; 1985; Vol. 46(11-A)
3272.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Among teenagers, higher awareness levels reduces propensity
to shoplift.
b. Teenage shoplifters most likely to be:
- 13 to 14 yrs. of age
- male
- socially inactive
- employed part-time
- from suburban home with limited income
41. A Case of Kleptomania Treated By Covert Sensitation.
Author: John H. Glover, Stratheden Hosp., Cupar, Scotland;
British Journal of Clinical Psychology; 1985; Vol. 24(3) p.213-214.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Shoplifted daily for 14 years.
b. Resentment against husband, job, lifestyle.
c. Treatment consisted of covert sensitization with imagery
of nausea and vomiting. Improvement within 8 weeks. 19 months
after completion of covert sensitization only 1 relapse.
d. Patient more cheerful, confident and socially outgoing.
42. The Twelfth Shopper: A Description and Gender
Comparison Of Shoplifting In Spokane, Washington.
Author: Joann E. Ray, University Washington; Dissertation
Abstracts International; 1984; Vol. 44(8-A) p. 2583-2584.
Findings or conclusions:
a. 34 of 382 (8.9% or 1 in 11 shoppers) adults admitted shoplifting
during the past year.
b. Perceived the significant evidence of:
- stress
- depression
- economic problems
- negative attitudes
- social isolation
43. Relief of Diazepam-Withdrawal Syndrome By Shoplifting.
Author: Jeremy Coid, Maudsley Hospital, London England; British
Journal of Psychiatry; 1984; Vol. 145; p. 552-554.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Shoplifting is a “relief mechanism” for depression,
anxiety.
b. 5 to 15% of shoplifters are “mentally abnormal”.
c. Shoplifting may represent the gratification of repressed
sexual wishes.
44. Irrational Beliefs of Shoplifting.
Authors: Gary S. Solomon/Joseph B. Ray, State University,
New York, Albany; Journal of Clinical Psychology; 1984; Vol.
40(4) p. 1075-1077.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Identified 8 most common irrational beliefs of shoplifters
in West Texas.
- If I am careful and smart, I will not get caught.
- Even if I do get caught, I will not be turned in and prosecuted.
- Even if I am prosecuted, the punishment will not be severe.
- The merchants deserve what they get.
- Everybody, at some time or another, has shoplifted; therefore
it’s ok for me to do it.
- Shoplifting is not a major crime.
- I must have the item I want to shoplift or if I want it,
I should have it.
- It is okay to shoplift because the merchants expect it.
45. Shoplifting in Middle America: Patterns &
Motivational Correlates.
Author: Richard H. Moore, Southern Illinois U, Center for
the Study of Crime Delinquency & Corrections, Carbondale,
IL; International Journal of Offender Therapy & Comparative
Criminology; 1984; Vol. 28(1); p. 53-64.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Among 300 shoplifters aged 16-73, 67.6% reported weekly
shoplifting.
b. Character defects (personality disorders) were the predominant
form of pathology found.
c. Mental illness was distributed equally between genders,
but nearly twice as many females were experiencing psychological
stressors.
d. Suggested intervention is short-term counseling followed
by education which encourages offenders to acknowledge crime
and consequences.
46. An Observational Study Of Shoplifting.
Author: Abigail Buckle/David P. Farrington, U Cambridge, Inst.
Of Criminology, England; Jan. 1984; Vol. 24(1); p. 63-73.
Findings or conclusions:
a. 1.8% of store customers followed at random stole at least
one item.
b. Shoplifting was most frequent among customers over age
55.
c. The probability of a shoplifting incident leading to an
apprehension and arrest appeared to be less than 1%.
47. Shoplifting: Is There A Specific Psychiatric
Syndrome?
Authors: John M. Bradford/Rufino Balmaceda, Royal Ottowa Hospital
Canada; Canadian Journal of Psychiatry; 1983; Vol. 28(4) p.
248-254.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Primary psychiatric diagnosis:
- 42% depressive neurosis
- 12% organic brain syndrome
- 8% manic depressive illness
- 8% transient situational disturbance
- 8% personality disorder
- 8% alcoholism
86% total
b. A high level of psychosocial stress antedating the shoplifting
behavior was a significant finding.
48. Shoplifting: An Occasional Crime Of the Moral
Majority.
Authors: Will Cupchik/J. Don Atcheson, Clarke Institute of
Psychiatry, Toronto, Canada; Bulletin of The American Academy
Of Psychiatry & The Law; 1983; Vol. 11(4); p. 343-354.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Stress precedes shoplifting.
b. All patients at least moderately depressed.
c. Shoplifting is believed to be an unconscious substitute
for loss; offenders feeling that they have been unfairly deprived.
49. Factors Associated With Illegal Drug Use In Rural
Georgia.
Authors: Ted L. Napier/Douglas C. Bachtel/Michael V. Carter,
Ohio State University, Columbus; Journal of Drug Education;
1983; Vol. 13(2) p. 119- 140.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Teenage drug users more frequently engage in shoplifting.
b. Treatment and prevention programs need to address social
and family issues.
50. Shoplifting: An Expression of Revenge And Restitution.
Authors: Anna Ornstein/Cheryl Gropper/Janice Z. Bogner, University
Cincinnati; Annual Of Psychoanalysis; 1983; Vol. 11; p. 311-331.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Precipitating experience was either a narcissistic injury
or a loss of self object.
b. Shoplifting represents an active mastery of childhood humiliation
which was passively endured.
c. Shoplifting often accompanied by a sense of triumph and
entitlement.
d. Emergency psychological treatment should attempt to reestablish
a sense of cohesion in a fragmentation- prone self.
e. Affects of arrest motivated therapeutic engagement.
51. College Shoplifters: Rebuttal of Beck & McIntyre.
Author: Richard H. Moore, Southern Illinois U Carbondale,
IL; Psychological Reports; Dec. 1983; Vol. 53(3); p. 1111-1116.
52. Management of Compulsive Shoplifting Through
Covert Sensitization.
Authors: Janel Gauthier/Denise Pellerin, University, Laval,
Quebec, Canada; Journal of Behavior Therapy & Experimental
Psychiatry; 1982; Vol. 13(1); p. 73-75.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Woman, 30, compulsive shoplifter for 4 years.
b. No need to steal. A lot of guilt.
c. Five prior convictions for shoplifting.
d. Severe feelings of helplessness and depression.
e. Thought-stopping treatment ineffective.
f. Covert sensitization (imagining various aversive consequences)
very effective.
53. A Study On The Daily Life Of Juveniles Committing
A Shoplifting.
Author: Ayako Uchiyama; Reports of the National Research Institute
Of Police Science, Japan; Dec. 1982; Vol. 23(2) p. 166-180.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Among 697 juvenile shoplifters, delinquents and non-delinquents
had similar backgrounds.
b. Delinquents were more dependent on their parents and more
susceptible to peer pressure.
54. Shoplifting.
Author: T. C. Gibbens; British Journal of Psychiatry; Apr.
1981; Vol. 138;
p. 346-347.
55. Assessment of Short-Term Treatment Groups With
Adjudicated First Offender Shoplifters.
Authors: Dan W. Edwards/George A. Roundtree, Louisianna State
University, Baton Rouge, LA; Journal of Offender Counseling,
Services & Rehabilitation; 1981; Vol. 6(1-2); p. 89-102.
Findings or conclusions:
a. 8 weekly, 1 ½ hour group therapy sessions administered
to first- offender shoplifters.
b. No significant differences after therapy as measured by
ego strength scale of MMPI. One-way analysis of variance comparing
experimental and control groups on pre-test and post-test
insignificant.
c. No difference in re-arrest statistics after 90 days.
d. Could not verify that group therapy reduced the incidence
of unlawful behavior.
56. Melancholia & Kleptomania.
Authors: Emilio Ramelli/Giorgio Mapelli, U Ferrara Psychiatric
Clinic, Italy; Acta Psychiatrica Belgica; Jan-Feb. 1979; Vol.
79(1); p. 56-74.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Case of a 51 year old woman of well-to-do economic condition
caught shoplifting during an attack of depression.
b. Melancholic dysthymia seemed well supported as a diagnosis.
57. The Use of Self-Control Procedures In The Treatment
of Chronic Shoplifting.
Authors: Robert T. Kurlychek/Kenneth P. Morganstern, Lane
County Adult Corrections, Eugene, OR; Corrective & Social
Psychiatry & Journal of Behavior Technology, Methods &
Therapy; 1978; Vol. 24(2); p. 86-87.
Findings or conclusions:
a. 39 year old married woman, mother of three.
b. Shoplifting the only excitement in her life.
c. A 10 week program aimed at providing assertiveness training
and improving social control proved completely effective.
d. Behavioral self-control techniques can be effective.
e. Positive reinforcement for alternative behaviors can be
effective.
58. Shoplifting: An Ordinary Crime?
Authors: Florez J. Arboleda/Helen Durie/John Costello, Calgary
General Hospital, Canada; International Journal of Offender
Therapy & Comparative Criminology; 1977; Vol. 21 (3);
p. 201-207.
Findings or conclusions:
a. To offenders, shoplifting not perceived as stealing, but
simply justified “payback”.
b. Passive-aggressive tendencies and feelings of being neglected
or rejected.
c. Family or financial stress frequently present.
d. The symbolic motivation of shoplifting is a retaliatory,
hostile striking back, which provides temporary relief of
stress.
59. MMPI Patterns of Shoplifters Within A College
Population.
Authors: Ester A. Beck/Sherwood C. McIntyre, Auburn University;
Psychological Reports; 1977; Vol. 41(3) PT2); p. 1035-1040.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Chronic shoplifters classified as maladjusted with psychopathic
tendencies.
b. Males who shoplifted only once believed to be passive,
immature, hostile individuals with somatic and interpersonal
sensitivities and feminine interests.
c. Females who shoplifted only once were similar to chronic
shoplifters regarding anti-establishment attitudes and masculine
orientation, but somatic anxieties and depression characterized
them as individuals who turned inward upon themselves rather
than overtly against others.
60. System Specifics in Offender Therapy.
Authors: William Gray/Lucille R. Gray, Malden Court Clinic,
MA; International Journal of Offender Therapy & Comparative
Criminology; 1977; Vol. 22(1); p. 56-67.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Shoplifting can occur in women as a result of unresolved
father- daughter relationship.
61. Thefts Without Motive Of Gain As A Psychopathologic
Syndrome.
Authors: B. Pauleikhoff/D. Hoffmann, Wesfalische Wilhelm's
University, Munster Nervenklinik, W. Germany; Fortschritte
Der Neurologie, Psychiatrie Und Ihrer Grenzgebiete; 1975;
Vol. 43(5); p. 254-271.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Shoplifters who apparently act without motive or gain
are individuals characterized by marital difficulties, sexual
frustration, depression, physical and mental exhaustion, aggressive
and suicidal tendencies. Called “Psychopathological
Syndrome”.
62. Shoplifting.
Authors: Ann W. Appelbaum/Herbert Klemmer, Menninger Perspective;
1974; Vol. 5(3); p. 16-19.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Surveys social and psychological factors in shoplifting.
b. Social causes include societal emphasis on competition,
poverty and rebellion against social norms.
c. Treatment of children through parents.
d. Teenagers often respond better to peers.
63. Shoplifting Behaviors, College Students, and
Assessment On The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory and the K.D. Proneness Scale.
Author: Ester A. Beck, Auburn University; Dissertation Abstracts
International; 1974; Vol. 34(7B); p. 3485.
Findings or conclusions:
a. The personality of the chronic shoplifter college student
differs from non-shoplifters.
b. Chronic shoplifters were found to be hostile, deceitful,
impulsive, high energy level, emotionally shallow.
64. A Comparison Of Shoplifters and Non-Shoplifters:
A Study of Student Self-Concepts.
Author: Janie S. Beers, University Maryland; Dissertation
Abstracts International; 1973; Vol. 34(7-B); p. 3455-3456.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Shoplifters have lower self-concepts in regard to their
moral-ethical selves than non-shoplifters.
b. Shoplifting significantly related to:
- Belief in favorable attitude of peers
- Belief that shoplifting is justified
- Belief in anti-establishment values
65. Suicide In Psychiatric Patients: Comparative
Study.
Author: Birgitta Rorsman, University, Lund, Sweden; Social
Psychiatry; 1973; Vol. 8(2); p 55p-66.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Shoplifting preceded suicide attempt in 2 of 45 suicide
psychiatric patients.
66. Emotional Aspects of Shoplifting.
Author: Donald H. Russell, Harvard Medical School, Boston,
MA; Psychiatric Annals; 1973; Vol. 3(5); p. 77-86.
Findings or conclusions:
a. Article presents 5 sample cases exploring the psychological
motives behind shoplifting.
b. Shoplifting an expression or symptom of emotional problems,
particularly related to early deprivation and feelings of
unfulfillment.
67. Mental Health Aspects of Shoplifting.
Authors: T. C. Gibbens/Clare Palmer/Joyce Prince, Institute
of Psychiatry, London, England; British Medical Journal; 1971;
Vol. 3(5775); p. 612-615.
Findings and conclusions:
a. The rate of shoplifting for women in mental hospitals
is 3 times higher than the rate of general hospital admissions.
b. Depression and mental stress often precede shoplifting
incidents.
c. Middle-aged recidivists seem to feel that 1st conviction
ruined their reputation for life.
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